Physics

Condensed matter physics is a branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of condensed phases of matter, where particles adhere to each other.

The study of condensed matter physics involves measuring various material properties via experimental probes along with using methods of theoretical physics to develop mathematical models that help in understanding physical behavior.

The term plasma refers to the fourth state of matter. The plasma is not only most energetic but also most challenging for researchers in the state of matter. The applications of plasma can even provide the major benefits over existing methods. Often the processes can be performed that are not even possible in any other manner. Plasma can also provide an efficiency increase in the processing methods and also very often can reduce the environmental impact in comparison to more conventional processes such as Electric conductivity in magnetized and non-magnetized plasma. This has recently become the most discussed topic in Physics and its allied concepts.

Astrophysics is a science that demonstrates the birth, life and death of stars, planets, galaxies, extra solar planets and the cosmic microwave background of universe rather than their positions or motions in space. Astronomy and Cosmology are two familial sciences which are of same genre. They also examine properties which include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. In order to understand the broad concept of Astrophysics one needs to be thorough with other disciplines of physics such as mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. Some of their study areas are determining the properties of dark matter, dark energy, and black holes; whether or not time travel is possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe. Cosmology is the investigation of the inception, advancement, and possible destiny of the universe. In other words cosmology means deeper investigation of the origin of largest-scale structures.

Computational Physics is the branch of science that deals with implementation of numerical analysis and its execution to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative hypothesis and theory is already there. Earlier Computational Physics was primarily used for modern computers in science, and it has become a subset of computational science recently. Many a times it is treated as akin to theoretical and experimental physics. Mathematical Physics is a branch of applied mathematics which deals with the development of appropriate mathematical methods to solve problems in physics and for the formulation of physical theories. Thus Mathematical Physics can be explained as “the application of mathematics to problems in Physics and the improvement of numerical techniques reasonable for such applications and for the detailing of physical theories”.

In the high-energy nuclear physics the main focus of study is on heavy-ion collisions when compared to lower atomic mass atoms in particle accelerators. Here, we can say that nuclear matter is on the level of its fundamental constituents such as quarks and gluons. The phase transition between DE confined quark-gluon matter, normal quark-gluon matter and normal nuclear matter is called as Quark Gluon Plasma. In the very high energy collisions of heavy nuclei quarks and gluons are released from the hadronic bounds of matter and therefore the new state of matter is formed which is also called as Quark-gluon plasma. The transition from the hadronic matter where neutrons, protons and other hadrons are individual particles to the quark-gluon plasma phase which is a definite prediction to the theory of strong interactions. Generally, the high energy collisions of heavy nuclei that is 'Plasma' lives only for 10-22 sec because it gets back to the hadronic phase when its rapid expansion is cooled down.

Atomic and molecular physics is a field specialized in physics. Atomic Physics includes the study of isolation and separation of ions and atoms, along with electron arrangements and excitation. It deals with “Atom” which consists of both Nucleus and Electrons, whereas Molecular physics is the study of molecules that have several atoms which specifically check for molecule's chemical bonding, nuclei and electrons when the molecule is in its gas phase. It also studies regarding the effects due to the molecular structure. Atomic Physics came into picture after the discovery that the matter is composed of smallest particles called “Atoms”. Atomic models comprises of only one nucleus which is surrounded by one or more bound electrons, whilst molecular models is generally deals with molecular hydrogen and its ion and also with processes such as ionization and excitation by photons.

The branch of Physics which takes the help of mathematical models and physical substances abstraction to explain, expound and foretell regarding natural phenomena is known as Theoretical Physics. In some cases, theoretical physics follows the principles of mathematical thoroughness while giving little importance to experiments and observations. The quality of a physical theory is also measured based on its ability to pose new predictions and assumptions which can be confirmed by new observations.

Mathematical models and deliberations of physical objects and frameworks were employed in Theoretical Physics to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in the total perspective shift from Experimental physics, which uses laboratory tools to delve into these phenomena. The progress of science generally depends on the coaction between experiments and theory. In some cases, theoretical physics follows the principles of mathematical thoroughness while giving little importance to experiments and observations. Theoretical Physics is a tool which guides us towards understanding nature and help extend practical methods and technologies to crack our physical environment. There is a deep dualistic link between theory and experiment which makes then one cannot exist without the other.

Experimental Physics deals with the observation of physical phenomena and experiments. The mechanisms involved differ from one discipline to the other, from basic experiments and observations like Cavendish experiments to more difficult and twisted ones like Large Hadron Collidor. Experimental Physics regroups all the branches of Physics that are associated with conceptualization, data acquisition and data acquisition methods. It is in contradictory with the Theoretical Physics which involves predicting and explaining the physical behavior of the nature. In spite of their concern towards different aspects of nature, both Theoretical and Experimental Physics share a common goal of understanding the nature and have symbiotic relation with it. Experimental Physics provides the data about the universe, while Theoretical Physics provides explanations for the data and thus offers insights on how better data can be acquired and how to set up experiments. 

The quantum field theory is the study of fields from a quantum mechanical perspective and is especially useful in treating interacting many-body systems. The theory has been applied to low dimensional quantum systems like the magnetic like Heisenberg or Ising spin chains or non-magnetic like carbon nanotubes or two-dimensional electron gases, strongly correlated conductors, standard BCS-like superconductors, high-Tc superconductors and a large etc. Feynman diagrams are frequently used by condensed matter theorists. One example of diagrammatic calculation is done in the 3D electron liquid with long-range Coulomb interactions. It has been shown that the energy at second order in perturbation theory is not divergent but finite due to renormalization of pure Coulomb interaction by the dynamics of the system. Schematic representation methods derived from quantum field theory also give a miniscule support to more phenomenological theories, like the Fermi liquid theory. Calculations of conductivity can be performed in disordered conductors in the presence of interactions between particles in/or scattering with impurities. The quantum field theory methods are also used to study 1-D fermions. Luttinger liquid physics appears in many systems like carbon nanotubes, semiconducting quasi-1D wires, anisotropic crystals or edge states in the fractional Quantum Hall effect for example. The further applications of the quantum field theory have been applied to statistical mechanics, in the study of quantum phase transitions and critical phenomena.

Quantum technology is a new arena of engineering and physics. In quantum technology transitions are made on some of the properties of quantum mechanics, especially quantum superposition, quantum entanglement and quantum tunnelling, into practical applications such as quantum sensing, quantum computing, quantum simulation, quantum cryptography, quantum imaging and quantum metrology. Quantum superposition states can be very sensitive to many external effects, such as electric, magnetic and gravitational fields; rotation, acceleration and time, and therefore can used to make very accurate sensors. Quantum secure correspondences are the methods which are anticipated to be 'quantum safe' in the approach of a quantum processing frameworks that could break current cryptography frameworks.

Medical physics is also known as Applied Physics in medicine, biomedical physics or medical biophysics. Theories, concepts and methods of Physics are applied to medicine and health care in this Medical physics. Areas of specialty of Medical physics include Medical imaging physics, Radiation therapeutic physics, Nuclear medicine physics, Health physics, Clinical audiology physics, Laser medicine, Medical optics, Neurophysics, Cardiophysics, Physiological measurement techniques, Physics of human and animal bodies, Health care informatics and computational physics and areas of R&D(Research and Development).

Biophysics acts as a bridge connecting Biology and Physics. Applications of Biophysics include vaccines against infectious diseases, controlling metabolic diseases such as diabetes, medical imaging techniquessuch as MRI, CAT scans, PET scans and sonograms for diagnosing diseases. Biophysics is helpful in  life-saving treatment methods of kidney dialysis, radiation therapy, cardiac defibrillators, and pacemakers.

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser). The first laser device was a pulsed ruby laser, demonstrated by Theodore H. Maiman in the 1960s at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. In the same year, the first gas laser, a helium–neon laser and the first laser diode were made. Semiconductor lasers, that are predominantly laser diodes, that are electrically or optically pumped, efficiently generating very high output powers, but typically with poor beam quality, or low powers with very good spatial properties for application in media players, or pulses for example for telecom applications with very high pulse repetition rates. Special types include quantum cascade lasers for mid-infrared light and surface-emitting semiconductor lasers, the latter also being suitable for pulse generation with high powers.

Magnetism arises from two sources 1) Electric Current and 2) Spin Magnetic moments of elementary particles. Mostly effects of magnetism are seen in Ferromagnetic materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and which can become permanent magnet in a long exposition by magnetization. Iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys are most commonly known ferromagnetic materials. Lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite is the first material in which permanent magnetism was found. There are many types of magnetic materials such as paramagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances and antiferromagnetic substances. But the force of these materials is too weak and can only be detected by laboratory instruments. The magnetic state depends on temperature, pressure and the applied magnetic field.

The study of motion and movement of heavenly, macroscopic objects and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars and galaxies is referred to as Classical Mechanics. If the current state of a something is known then it is possible to foretell and explain how it will move in the future (determinism) and how it has moved in the past (reversibility) with the help of the laws of classical mechanics. Earlier Classical Mechanics was also known as Newtonian Mechanics, which consisted physical concepts and mathematical methods of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

Soft condensed matter is a youthful turf of condensed matter.  Liquids, colloids, polymers, foams, gels, granular materials, liquid crystals, and a number of biological materials are examples of soft condensed matter. Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, is the "founding father of soft matter". The word soft in this setting does not have anything to do with the non-abrasiveness of the resulting material, but it is only an intermediary to the traditional idea of the particles. Soft particles self organizes themselves to mesoscopic physical structures which are larger than microscopic structures such as atom and molecules and yet are smaller than macroscopic structures. The molecules are organized into a crystalline lattice with no changes in the pattern at any mesoscopic scale in soft condensed matter physics.

Nano-scale Physics is the study of a Nano scale system which is a structure with at least one dimension in nanometer scale. It straddles the differences between the molecular and the macroscopic. Nano scale particles are small enough to exhibit important characteristics of molecules but are large enough for their properties to be intended and controlled to meet human needs. The surfaces have a measurement on nanoscale which is called Nano textured surfaces. Nanoscale structure is most commonly called as ultrastructure. Due to the enhanced role of surface atoms with their unpaired spins and uncompensated bonds; the reduced dimensionality at the nanoscale; and quantum confinement and/or coherence effects, Physics at the nanometer scale is massively different from that of bulk materials.

Physicists use theoretical and experimental methods to develop justifications of the goings-on in nature. Surprisingly, many occurrences such as electrical conduction can be elaborated through relatively streamlined mathematical pictures — models that were landscaped well before the coming of modern computation. And then there are affairs in nature that push even the limits of high performance computing and advanced experimental tools. Computers specially struggle at simulating systems made of numerous particles--or many-bodies – engaging with each other through multiple competing pathways. Yet, some of the most provocative physics happens when the individual particle conduct give way to emergent collective properties. The theory of Quantum Thermodynamic Motion (or QTM) is an area of physics which provides a assembled framework of comprehending for the behavior of complex assemblies, namely their constitute particles and force interactions. In general terms, the many-body hypothesis describes effects that demonstrate themselves in a system which contains a large numbers of non-trivial forces (e.g. particles and fields). While the basal laws of physics that govern the bodies of motion on each individual particle may or may not be trivial, the study of systems collective particles may display extremely complex phenomena. As often is the case in which a tangled array of forces reveal nascent phenomenon which oft bear little or no commonality to the underlying system dynamics.

Applied physics is the science which is considered as a bridge between physics and engineering. It is intended for particular technology or practical use. Applied Physics is originated from the fundamental truths and basic concepts of Physical sciences and utilization of scientific principles in practical devices and systems, and in the application of physics in other areas of science. For example, the inspiration and approach of specialists and the idea of the relationship to the innovation of science that may be influenced by the work. It as a rule contrasts from building in that a connected physicist may not be planning something in particular, but instead is utilizing physics or directing physical science inquire about with the point of growing new advances or settling a designing issue. This approach is similar to that of Applied mathematics.

The science which deals with the production and maintenance of below normal temperature or at absolute zero and the processes and phenomena that takes place only at those temperatures is referred to as Low Temperature Physics. It is also known as “Cryogenics” which means producing cold in Greek language. Kelvin temperature scale which is based on the behavior of an idealized gas  is used as scale or measure the temperatures in low-temperature physics. The simplest way by which we can achieve low temperature is or to cool a substance is to bring it into contact with another substance that is already at a low temperature.